Equivalent Circuit DefinitionAn equivalent circuit of a transformer is a simplified model used to calculate impedance, resistance, and leakage reactance.Primary Side Equivalent CircuitTo draw the equivalent circuit referred to the primary side, use the general equivalent circuit and modify it for primary side calculations.Excitation BranchThe primary current splits into no-load and load components, requiring a parallel path in the equivalent circuit known as the excitation branch.Approximate Equ

EMF Equation of Transformer DefinitionThe EMF equation of a transformer is derived using Faraday’s law, indicating the induced EMF based on flux changes and winding turns.Magnetizing CurrentAn alternating current in the primary winding generates a magnetizing current that produces alternating flux in the transformer’s core.Sinusoidal Flux and EMFThe sinusoidal primary current creates a sinusoidal flux, and its rate of change (cosine function) determines the induced EMF.Voltage and Turns RatioThe

What is Nyquist Criteria ?Nyquist Stability Criterion DefinitionThe Nyquist stability criterion is defined as a graphical technique used in control engineering to determine the stability of a dynamical system.Application of Nyquist CriterionIt applies to open-loop systems and can handle transfer functions with singularities, unlike Bode plots.Criterion FormulaZ = number of roots of 1+G(s)H(s) in right-hand side (RHS) of s-plane (It is also called zeros of characteristics equation)N = number of e

What is QAM?QAM DefinitioQAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) is defined as a modulation technique that combines phase and amplitude modulation to transmit information.Working PrincipleQAM changes both the amplitude and phase of a carrier wave to double the effective bandwidth.Analog vs Digital QAMAnalog QAM is used in traditional TV systems, while Digital QAM, known as Quantized QAM, is used in modern digital communications like Wi-Fi and cellular networks.QAM FormatsDifferent QAM formats, suc

What are the Fresnel Equations?Fresnel Equations DefinitionFresnel Equations describe the ratios of electric fields of reflected and transmitted waves to the incident wave.Light Reflection and TransmissionThese equations explain how light reflects and transmits at the boundary between two different mediums.Polarization type S-Polarization P-PolarizationHistorical InsightAugustin-Jean Fresnel developed these equations, understanding light as a transverse wave.PolarizationsLight polarization can b

What is a Quantum Number?Quantum Numbers DefinitionQuantum numbers are defined as values that describe the location, energy level, and spin of electrons in an atom.Principal Quantum NumberThis number, denoted as ‘n’, represents the main energy level or shell an electron occupies.Orbital Quantum NumberAlso known as the azimuthal quantum number, this number, denoted as ‘l’, indicates the subshell and shape of the orbital.Magnetic Quantum NumberThis number, denoted as ‘m or ml’, describes the orien

Here's a good wayto define electromagnetism -Electromagnetism is a branch of physics involving the study of the electromagnetic force, a type of physical interaction that occurs between electrically charged particles.The electromagnetic force is carried by electromagnetic fields composed of electric fields and magnetic fields, and it is responsible for electromagnetic radiation such as light.Who Discovered Electromagnetism?In 1820, the Danish physicist, Hans Christian Oersted, discovered that th

What is a Multimeter?A multimeter (MM) is essential for those working with electronics or electrical systems. It is a versatile instrument that combines several measurement functions into one unit, making it indispensable for electricians, technicians, and even DIY enthusiasts. This article will explore a multimeter's features, types of multimeters, and useswhile answering some common questions about this indispensable tool.Multimeters come in two primary forms: digital (DMMs) and analog multime

What is Inductance?Inductance occurs when a change in current flow is exploited for the purpose of preventing signals with a higher frequency component from passing while allowing signals of lower frequency components to pass. This is why inductors are sometimes referred to as "chokes," since they effectively choke off higher frequencies. A common application of a choke is in a radio amplifier biasing circuit where the collector of a transistor needs to be supplied with a DC voltage without allo

With the development of Photoelectric effect, Crompton’s effect and Bohr’s model of atom, the idea of light or in fact radiations in general, being composed of particles or discrete Quanta was gaining wide popularity.However, the very established Huygen’s Principle and the results of Young’s double slit experiments made it very clear that light was wave and not a flow particles.The striking interference pattern observed by passing light through double slits was definitely a result of the wave na